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1/*
2 * trace event based perf event profiling/tracing
3 *
4 * Copyright (C) 2009 Red Hat Inc, Peter Zijlstra
5 * Copyright (C) 2009-2010 Frederic Weisbecker <fweisbec@gmail.com>
6 */
7
8#include <linux/module.h>
9#include <linux/kprobes.h>
10#include "trace.h"
11
12static char __percpu *perf_trace_buf[PERF_NR_CONTEXTS];
13
14/*
15 * Force it to be aligned to unsigned long to avoid misaligned accesses
16 * suprises
17 */
18typedef typeof(unsigned long [PERF_MAX_TRACE_SIZE / sizeof(unsigned long)])
19 perf_trace_t;
20
21/* Count the events in use (per event id, not per instance) */
22static int total_ref_count;
23
24static int perf_trace_event_perm(struct trace_event_call *tp_event,
25 struct perf_event *p_event)
26{
27 if (tp_event->perf_perm) {
28 int ret = tp_event->perf_perm(tp_event, p_event);
29 if (ret)
30 return ret;
31 }
32
33 /*
34 * We checked and allowed to create parent,
35 * allow children without checking.
36 */
37 if (p_event->parent)
38 return 0;
39
40 /*
41 * It's ok to check current process (owner) permissions in here,
42 * because code below is called only via perf_event_open syscall.
43 */
44
45 /* The ftrace function trace is allowed only for root. */
46 if (ftrace_event_is_function(tp_event)) {
47 if (perf_paranoid_tracepoint_raw() && !capable(CAP_SYS_ADMIN))
48 return -EPERM;
49
50 if (!is_sampling_event(p_event))
51 return 0;
52
53 /*
54 * We don't allow user space callchains for function trace
55 * event, due to issues with page faults while tracing page
56 * fault handler and its overall trickiness nature.
57 */
58 if (!p_event->attr.exclude_callchain_user)
59 return -EINVAL;
60
61 /*
62 * Same reason to disable user stack dump as for user space
63 * callchains above.
64 */
65 if (p_event->attr.sample_type & PERF_SAMPLE_STACK_USER)
66 return -EINVAL;
67 }
68
69 /* No tracing, just counting, so no obvious leak */
70 if (!(p_event->attr.sample_type & PERF_SAMPLE_RAW))
71 return 0;
72
73 /* Some events are ok to be traced by non-root users... */
74 if (p_event->attach_state == PERF_ATTACH_TASK) {
75 if (tp_event->flags & TRACE_EVENT_FL_CAP_ANY)
76 return 0;
77 }
78
79 /*
80 * ...otherwise raw tracepoint data can be a severe data leak,
81 * only allow root to have these.
82 */
83 if (perf_paranoid_tracepoint_raw() && !capable(CAP_SYS_ADMIN))
84 return -EPERM;
85
86 return 0;
87}
88
89static int perf_trace_event_reg(struct trace_event_call *tp_event,
90 struct perf_event *p_event)
91{
92 struct hlist_head __percpu *list;
93 int ret = -ENOMEM;
94 int cpu;
95
96 p_event->tp_event = tp_event;
97 if (tp_event->perf_refcount++ > 0)
98 return 0;
99
100 list = alloc_percpu(struct hlist_head);
101 if (!list)
102 goto fail;
103
104 for_each_possible_cpu(cpu)
105 INIT_HLIST_HEAD(per_cpu_ptr(list, cpu));
106
107 tp_event->perf_events = list;
108
109 if (!total_ref_count) {
110 char __percpu *buf;
111 int i;
112
113 for (i = 0; i < PERF_NR_CONTEXTS; i++) {
114 buf = (char __percpu *)alloc_percpu(perf_trace_t);
115 if (!buf)
116 goto fail;
117
118 perf_trace_buf[i] = buf;
119 }
120 }
121
122 ret = tp_event->class->reg(tp_event, TRACE_REG_PERF_REGISTER, NULL);
123 if (ret)
124 goto fail;
125
126 total_ref_count++;
127 return 0;
128
129fail:
130 if (!total_ref_count) {
131 int i;
132
133 for (i = 0; i < PERF_NR_CONTEXTS; i++) {
134 free_percpu(perf_trace_buf[i]);
135 perf_trace_buf[i] = NULL;
136 }
137 }
138
139 if (!--tp_event->perf_refcount) {
140 free_percpu(tp_event->perf_events);
141 tp_event->perf_events = NULL;
142 }
143
144 return ret;
145}
146
147static void perf_trace_event_unreg(struct perf_event *p_event)
148{
149 struct trace_event_call *tp_event = p_event->tp_event;
150 int i;
151
152 if (--tp_event->perf_refcount > 0)
153 goto out;
154
155 tp_event->class->reg(tp_event, TRACE_REG_PERF_UNREGISTER, NULL);
156
157 /*
158 * Ensure our callback won't be called anymore. The buffers
159 * will be freed after that.
160 */
161 tracepoint_synchronize_unregister();
162
163 free_percpu(tp_event->perf_events);
164 tp_event->perf_events = NULL;
165
166 if (!--total_ref_count) {
167 for (i = 0; i < PERF_NR_CONTEXTS; i++) {
168 free_percpu(perf_trace_buf[i]);
169 perf_trace_buf[i] = NULL;
170 }
171 }
172out:
173 module_put(tp_event->mod);
174}
175
176static int perf_trace_event_open(struct perf_event *p_event)
177{
178 struct trace_event_call *tp_event = p_event->tp_event;
179 return tp_event->class->reg(tp_event, TRACE_REG_PERF_OPEN, p_event);
180}
181
182static void perf_trace_event_close(struct perf_event *p_event)
183{
184 struct trace_event_call *tp_event = p_event->tp_event;
185 tp_event->class->reg(tp_event, TRACE_REG_PERF_CLOSE, p_event);
186}
187
188static int perf_trace_event_init(struct trace_event_call *tp_event,
189 struct perf_event *p_event)
190{
191 int ret;
192
193 ret = perf_trace_event_perm(tp_event, p_event);
194 if (ret)
195 return ret;
196
197 ret = perf_trace_event_reg(tp_event, p_event);
198 if (ret)
199 return ret;
200
201 ret = perf_trace_event_open(p_event);
202 if (ret) {
203 perf_trace_event_unreg(p_event);
204 return ret;
205 }
206
207 return 0;
208}
209
210int perf_trace_init(struct perf_event *p_event)
211{
212 struct trace_event_call *tp_event;
213 u64 event_id = p_event->attr.config;
214 int ret = -EINVAL;
215
216 mutex_lock(&event_mutex);
217 list_for_each_entry(tp_event, &ftrace_events, list) {
218 if (tp_event->event.type == event_id &&
219 tp_event->class && tp_event->class->reg &&
220 try_module_get(tp_event->mod)) {
221 ret = perf_trace_event_init(tp_event, p_event);
222 if (ret)
223 module_put(tp_event->mod);
224 break;
225 }
226 }
227 mutex_unlock(&event_mutex);
228
229 return ret;
230}
231
232void perf_trace_destroy(struct perf_event *p_event)
233{
234 mutex_lock(&event_mutex);
235 perf_trace_event_close(p_event);
236 perf_trace_event_unreg(p_event);
237 mutex_unlock(&event_mutex);
238}
239
240int perf_trace_add(struct perf_event *p_event, int flags)
241{
242 struct trace_event_call *tp_event = p_event->tp_event;
243 struct hlist_head __percpu *pcpu_list;
244 struct hlist_head *list;
245
246 pcpu_list = tp_event->perf_events;
247 if (WARN_ON_ONCE(!pcpu_list))
248 return -EINVAL;
249
250 if (!(flags & PERF_EF_START))
251 p_event->hw.state = PERF_HES_STOPPED;
252
253 list = this_cpu_ptr(pcpu_list);
254 hlist_add_head_rcu(&p_event->hlist_entry, list);
255
256 return tp_event->class->reg(tp_event, TRACE_REG_PERF_ADD, p_event);
257}
258
259void perf_trace_del(struct perf_event *p_event, int flags)
260{
261 struct trace_event_call *tp_event = p_event->tp_event;
262 hlist_del_rcu(&p_event->hlist_entry);
263 tp_event->class->reg(tp_event, TRACE_REG_PERF_DEL, p_event);
264}
265
266void *perf_trace_buf_alloc(int size, struct pt_regs **regs, int *rctxp)
267{
268 char *raw_data;
269 int rctx;
270
271 BUILD_BUG_ON(PERF_MAX_TRACE_SIZE % sizeof(unsigned long));
272
273 if (WARN_ONCE(size > PERF_MAX_TRACE_SIZE,
274 "perf buffer not large enough"))
275 return NULL;
276
277 *rctxp = rctx = perf_swevent_get_recursion_context();
278 if (rctx < 0)
279 return NULL;
280
281 if (regs)
282 *regs = this_cpu_ptr(&__perf_regs[rctx]);
283 raw_data = this_cpu_ptr(perf_trace_buf[rctx]);
284
285 /* zero the dead bytes from align to not leak stack to user */
286 memset(&raw_data[size - sizeof(u64)], 0, sizeof(u64));
287 return raw_data;
288}
289EXPORT_SYMBOL_GPL(perf_trace_buf_alloc);
290NOKPROBE_SYMBOL(perf_trace_buf_alloc);
291
292void perf_trace_buf_update(void *record, u16 type)
293{
294 struct trace_entry *entry = record;
295 int pc = preempt_count();
296 unsigned long flags;
297
298 local_save_flags(flags);
299 tracing_generic_entry_update(entry, flags, pc);
300 entry->type = type;
301}
302NOKPROBE_SYMBOL(perf_trace_buf_update);
303
304#ifdef CONFIG_FUNCTION_TRACER
305static void
306perf_ftrace_function_call(unsigned long ip, unsigned long parent_ip,
307 struct ftrace_ops *ops, struct pt_regs *pt_regs)
308{
309 struct ftrace_entry *entry;
310 struct hlist_head *head;
311 struct pt_regs regs;
312 int rctx;
313
314 head = this_cpu_ptr(event_function.perf_events);
315 if (hlist_empty(head))
316 return;
317
318#define ENTRY_SIZE (ALIGN(sizeof(struct ftrace_entry) + sizeof(u32), \
319 sizeof(u64)) - sizeof(u32))
320
321 BUILD_BUG_ON(ENTRY_SIZE > PERF_MAX_TRACE_SIZE);
322
323 memset(®s, 0, sizeof(regs));
324 perf_fetch_caller_regs(®s);
325
326 entry = perf_trace_buf_alloc(ENTRY_SIZE, NULL, &rctx);
327 if (!entry)
328 return;
329
330 entry->ip = ip;
331 entry->parent_ip = parent_ip;
332 perf_trace_buf_submit(entry, ENTRY_SIZE, rctx, TRACE_FN,
333 1, ®s, head, NULL);
334
335#undef ENTRY_SIZE
336}
337
338static int perf_ftrace_function_register(struct perf_event *event)
339{
340 struct ftrace_ops *ops = &event->ftrace_ops;
341
342 ops->flags |= FTRACE_OPS_FL_PER_CPU | FTRACE_OPS_FL_RCU;
343 ops->func = perf_ftrace_function_call;
344 return register_ftrace_function(ops);
345}
346
347static int perf_ftrace_function_unregister(struct perf_event *event)
348{
349 struct ftrace_ops *ops = &event->ftrace_ops;
350 int ret = unregister_ftrace_function(ops);
351 ftrace_free_filter(ops);
352 return ret;
353}
354
355static void perf_ftrace_function_enable(struct perf_event *event)
356{
357 ftrace_function_local_enable(&event->ftrace_ops);
358}
359
360static void perf_ftrace_function_disable(struct perf_event *event)
361{
362 ftrace_function_local_disable(&event->ftrace_ops);
363}
364
365int perf_ftrace_event_register(struct trace_event_call *call,
366 enum trace_reg type, void *data)
367{
368 switch (type) {
369 case TRACE_REG_REGISTER:
370 case TRACE_REG_UNREGISTER:
371 break;
372 case TRACE_REG_PERF_REGISTER:
373 case TRACE_REG_PERF_UNREGISTER:
374 return 0;
375 case TRACE_REG_PERF_OPEN:
376 return perf_ftrace_function_register(data);
377 case TRACE_REG_PERF_CLOSE:
378 return perf_ftrace_function_unregister(data);
379 case TRACE_REG_PERF_ADD:
380 perf_ftrace_function_enable(data);
381 return 0;
382 case TRACE_REG_PERF_DEL:
383 perf_ftrace_function_disable(data);
384 return 0;
385 }
386
387 return -EINVAL;
388}
389#endif /* CONFIG_FUNCTION_TRACER */
1/*
2 * trace event based perf event profiling/tracing
3 *
4 * Copyright (C) 2009 Red Hat Inc, Peter Zijlstra
5 * Copyright (C) 2009-2010 Frederic Weisbecker <fweisbec@gmail.com>
6 */
7
8#include <linux/module.h>
9#include <linux/kprobes.h>
10#include "trace.h"
11
12static char __percpu *perf_trace_buf[PERF_NR_CONTEXTS];
13
14/*
15 * Force it to be aligned to unsigned long to avoid misaligned accesses
16 * suprises
17 */
18typedef typeof(unsigned long [PERF_MAX_TRACE_SIZE / sizeof(unsigned long)])
19 perf_trace_t;
20
21/* Count the events in use (per event id, not per instance) */
22static int total_ref_count;
23
24static int perf_trace_event_perm(struct trace_event_call *tp_event,
25 struct perf_event *p_event)
26{
27 if (tp_event->perf_perm) {
28 int ret = tp_event->perf_perm(tp_event, p_event);
29 if (ret)
30 return ret;
31 }
32
33 /*
34 * We checked and allowed to create parent,
35 * allow children without checking.
36 */
37 if (p_event->parent)
38 return 0;
39
40 /*
41 * It's ok to check current process (owner) permissions in here,
42 * because code below is called only via perf_event_open syscall.
43 */
44
45 /* The ftrace function trace is allowed only for root. */
46 if (ftrace_event_is_function(tp_event)) {
47 if (perf_paranoid_tracepoint_raw() && !capable(CAP_SYS_ADMIN))
48 return -EPERM;
49
50 /*
51 * We don't allow user space callchains for function trace
52 * event, due to issues with page faults while tracing page
53 * fault handler and its overall trickiness nature.
54 */
55 if (!p_event->attr.exclude_callchain_user)
56 return -EINVAL;
57
58 /*
59 * Same reason to disable user stack dump as for user space
60 * callchains above.
61 */
62 if (p_event->attr.sample_type & PERF_SAMPLE_STACK_USER)
63 return -EINVAL;
64 }
65
66 /* No tracing, just counting, so no obvious leak */
67 if (!(p_event->attr.sample_type & PERF_SAMPLE_RAW))
68 return 0;
69
70 /* Some events are ok to be traced by non-root users... */
71 if (p_event->attach_state == PERF_ATTACH_TASK) {
72 if (tp_event->flags & TRACE_EVENT_FL_CAP_ANY)
73 return 0;
74 }
75
76 /*
77 * ...otherwise raw tracepoint data can be a severe data leak,
78 * only allow root to have these.
79 */
80 if (perf_paranoid_tracepoint_raw() && !capable(CAP_SYS_ADMIN))
81 return -EPERM;
82
83 return 0;
84}
85
86static int perf_trace_event_reg(struct trace_event_call *tp_event,
87 struct perf_event *p_event)
88{
89 struct hlist_head __percpu *list;
90 int ret = -ENOMEM;
91 int cpu;
92
93 p_event->tp_event = tp_event;
94 if (tp_event->perf_refcount++ > 0)
95 return 0;
96
97 list = alloc_percpu(struct hlist_head);
98 if (!list)
99 goto fail;
100
101 for_each_possible_cpu(cpu)
102 INIT_HLIST_HEAD(per_cpu_ptr(list, cpu));
103
104 tp_event->perf_events = list;
105
106 if (!total_ref_count) {
107 char __percpu *buf;
108 int i;
109
110 for (i = 0; i < PERF_NR_CONTEXTS; i++) {
111 buf = (char __percpu *)alloc_percpu(perf_trace_t);
112 if (!buf)
113 goto fail;
114
115 perf_trace_buf[i] = buf;
116 }
117 }
118
119 ret = tp_event->class->reg(tp_event, TRACE_REG_PERF_REGISTER, NULL);
120 if (ret)
121 goto fail;
122
123 total_ref_count++;
124 return 0;
125
126fail:
127 if (!total_ref_count) {
128 int i;
129
130 for (i = 0; i < PERF_NR_CONTEXTS; i++) {
131 free_percpu(perf_trace_buf[i]);
132 perf_trace_buf[i] = NULL;
133 }
134 }
135
136 if (!--tp_event->perf_refcount) {
137 free_percpu(tp_event->perf_events);
138 tp_event->perf_events = NULL;
139 }
140
141 return ret;
142}
143
144static void perf_trace_event_unreg(struct perf_event *p_event)
145{
146 struct trace_event_call *tp_event = p_event->tp_event;
147 int i;
148
149 if (--tp_event->perf_refcount > 0)
150 goto out;
151
152 tp_event->class->reg(tp_event, TRACE_REG_PERF_UNREGISTER, NULL);
153
154 /*
155 * Ensure our callback won't be called anymore. The buffers
156 * will be freed after that.
157 */
158 tracepoint_synchronize_unregister();
159
160 free_percpu(tp_event->perf_events);
161 tp_event->perf_events = NULL;
162
163 if (!--total_ref_count) {
164 for (i = 0; i < PERF_NR_CONTEXTS; i++) {
165 free_percpu(perf_trace_buf[i]);
166 perf_trace_buf[i] = NULL;
167 }
168 }
169out:
170 module_put(tp_event->mod);
171}
172
173static int perf_trace_event_open(struct perf_event *p_event)
174{
175 struct trace_event_call *tp_event = p_event->tp_event;
176 return tp_event->class->reg(tp_event, TRACE_REG_PERF_OPEN, p_event);
177}
178
179static void perf_trace_event_close(struct perf_event *p_event)
180{
181 struct trace_event_call *tp_event = p_event->tp_event;
182 tp_event->class->reg(tp_event, TRACE_REG_PERF_CLOSE, p_event);
183}
184
185static int perf_trace_event_init(struct trace_event_call *tp_event,
186 struct perf_event *p_event)
187{
188 int ret;
189
190 ret = perf_trace_event_perm(tp_event, p_event);
191 if (ret)
192 return ret;
193
194 ret = perf_trace_event_reg(tp_event, p_event);
195 if (ret)
196 return ret;
197
198 ret = perf_trace_event_open(p_event);
199 if (ret) {
200 perf_trace_event_unreg(p_event);
201 return ret;
202 }
203
204 return 0;
205}
206
207int perf_trace_init(struct perf_event *p_event)
208{
209 struct trace_event_call *tp_event;
210 u64 event_id = p_event->attr.config;
211 int ret = -EINVAL;
212
213 mutex_lock(&event_mutex);
214 list_for_each_entry(tp_event, &ftrace_events, list) {
215 if (tp_event->event.type == event_id &&
216 tp_event->class && tp_event->class->reg &&
217 try_module_get(tp_event->mod)) {
218 ret = perf_trace_event_init(tp_event, p_event);
219 if (ret)
220 module_put(tp_event->mod);
221 break;
222 }
223 }
224 mutex_unlock(&event_mutex);
225
226 return ret;
227}
228
229void perf_trace_destroy(struct perf_event *p_event)
230{
231 mutex_lock(&event_mutex);
232 perf_trace_event_close(p_event);
233 perf_trace_event_unreg(p_event);
234 mutex_unlock(&event_mutex);
235}
236
237int perf_trace_add(struct perf_event *p_event, int flags)
238{
239 struct trace_event_call *tp_event = p_event->tp_event;
240 struct hlist_head __percpu *pcpu_list;
241 struct hlist_head *list;
242
243 pcpu_list = tp_event->perf_events;
244 if (WARN_ON_ONCE(!pcpu_list))
245 return -EINVAL;
246
247 if (!(flags & PERF_EF_START))
248 p_event->hw.state = PERF_HES_STOPPED;
249
250 list = this_cpu_ptr(pcpu_list);
251 hlist_add_head_rcu(&p_event->hlist_entry, list);
252
253 return tp_event->class->reg(tp_event, TRACE_REG_PERF_ADD, p_event);
254}
255
256void perf_trace_del(struct perf_event *p_event, int flags)
257{
258 struct trace_event_call *tp_event = p_event->tp_event;
259 hlist_del_rcu(&p_event->hlist_entry);
260 tp_event->class->reg(tp_event, TRACE_REG_PERF_DEL, p_event);
261}
262
263void *perf_trace_buf_prepare(int size, unsigned short type,
264 struct pt_regs **regs, int *rctxp)
265{
266 struct trace_entry *entry;
267 unsigned long flags;
268 char *raw_data;
269 int pc;
270
271 BUILD_BUG_ON(PERF_MAX_TRACE_SIZE % sizeof(unsigned long));
272
273 if (WARN_ONCE(size > PERF_MAX_TRACE_SIZE,
274 "perf buffer not large enough"))
275 return NULL;
276
277 pc = preempt_count();
278
279 *rctxp = perf_swevent_get_recursion_context();
280 if (*rctxp < 0)
281 return NULL;
282
283 if (regs)
284 *regs = this_cpu_ptr(&__perf_regs[*rctxp]);
285 raw_data = this_cpu_ptr(perf_trace_buf[*rctxp]);
286
287 /* zero the dead bytes from align to not leak stack to user */
288 memset(&raw_data[size - sizeof(u64)], 0, sizeof(u64));
289
290 entry = (struct trace_entry *)raw_data;
291 local_save_flags(flags);
292 tracing_generic_entry_update(entry, flags, pc);
293 entry->type = type;
294
295 return raw_data;
296}
297EXPORT_SYMBOL_GPL(perf_trace_buf_prepare);
298NOKPROBE_SYMBOL(perf_trace_buf_prepare);
299
300#ifdef CONFIG_FUNCTION_TRACER
301static void
302perf_ftrace_function_call(unsigned long ip, unsigned long parent_ip,
303 struct ftrace_ops *ops, struct pt_regs *pt_regs)
304{
305 struct ftrace_entry *entry;
306 struct hlist_head *head;
307 struct pt_regs regs;
308 int rctx;
309
310 head = this_cpu_ptr(event_function.perf_events);
311 if (hlist_empty(head))
312 return;
313
314#define ENTRY_SIZE (ALIGN(sizeof(struct ftrace_entry) + sizeof(u32), \
315 sizeof(u64)) - sizeof(u32))
316
317 BUILD_BUG_ON(ENTRY_SIZE > PERF_MAX_TRACE_SIZE);
318
319 perf_fetch_caller_regs(®s);
320
321 entry = perf_trace_buf_prepare(ENTRY_SIZE, TRACE_FN, NULL, &rctx);
322 if (!entry)
323 return;
324
325 entry->ip = ip;
326 entry->parent_ip = parent_ip;
327 perf_trace_buf_submit(entry, ENTRY_SIZE, rctx, 0,
328 1, ®s, head, NULL);
329
330#undef ENTRY_SIZE
331}
332
333static int perf_ftrace_function_register(struct perf_event *event)
334{
335 struct ftrace_ops *ops = &event->ftrace_ops;
336
337 ops->flags |= FTRACE_OPS_FL_PER_CPU | FTRACE_OPS_FL_RCU;
338 ops->func = perf_ftrace_function_call;
339 return register_ftrace_function(ops);
340}
341
342static int perf_ftrace_function_unregister(struct perf_event *event)
343{
344 struct ftrace_ops *ops = &event->ftrace_ops;
345 int ret = unregister_ftrace_function(ops);
346 ftrace_free_filter(ops);
347 return ret;
348}
349
350static void perf_ftrace_function_enable(struct perf_event *event)
351{
352 ftrace_function_local_enable(&event->ftrace_ops);
353}
354
355static void perf_ftrace_function_disable(struct perf_event *event)
356{
357 ftrace_function_local_disable(&event->ftrace_ops);
358}
359
360int perf_ftrace_event_register(struct trace_event_call *call,
361 enum trace_reg type, void *data)
362{
363 switch (type) {
364 case TRACE_REG_REGISTER:
365 case TRACE_REG_UNREGISTER:
366 break;
367 case TRACE_REG_PERF_REGISTER:
368 case TRACE_REG_PERF_UNREGISTER:
369 return 0;
370 case TRACE_REG_PERF_OPEN:
371 return perf_ftrace_function_register(data);
372 case TRACE_REG_PERF_CLOSE:
373 return perf_ftrace_function_unregister(data);
374 case TRACE_REG_PERF_ADD:
375 perf_ftrace_function_enable(data);
376 return 0;
377 case TRACE_REG_PERF_DEL:
378 perf_ftrace_function_disable(data);
379 return 0;
380 }
381
382 return -EINVAL;
383}
384#endif /* CONFIG_FUNCTION_TRACER */